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Abstract

Executive Summary

This report examines drug misuse trends in Scotland from 1996 to 2023, highlighting key findings:

  • Trends: Drug misuse deaths peaked in 2020 (1,339 deaths) but remained high at 1,276 in 2023.
  • Causes: Accidental poisoning is now the leading cause of death, with poly-drug use contributing to over 70% of fatalities.
  • Disparities: Individuals in the most deprived quintile experience drug death rates up to 8 times higher than those in the least deprived quintile.
  • Policy Failures: Governance issues and inequitable funding exacerbate the crisis, despite targeted harm reduction measures like naloxone distribution.

Key Recommendations

  1. Expand harm reduction services, including supervised injection sites and mobile units.
  2. Scale trauma-informed, gender-sensitive services to address systemic inequities.
  3. Integrate addiction and mental health care, focusing on deprived areas.

Introduction

The drug misuse crisis in Scotland remains one of the most severe public health challenges in Europe (McAuley, Matheson, and Robertson, 2022).

According to Scotland’s National Records, substance abuse caused 1,276 recorded deaths in 2023. At 22.4 fatalities per 100,000, Scotland’s drug death rate far exceeds the UK’s average of 7.6, reflecting ongoing systemic failures despite recent declines.

This paper examines drug misuse trends in Scotland from 1996 to 2023, focusing on:
- Geographic, socioeconomic, and gender disparities
- Policy interventions (e.g., the 2011 reform of reporting standards)
- The role of poly-drug use in fatalities

The analysis identifies temporal trends, disparities, and policy implications while offering actionable recommendations to reduce drug-related deaths in Scotland.


How to Use This Report

This report integrates interactive plots and maps to explore Scotland’s drug misuse crisis:

  • Hover over data points for additional information.
  • Use zoom and pan features in visualizations to examine specific time periods or categories.
  • Click on lines in the legend to hide them from the graph, making it easier to focus on specific data trends.

Methods

This report utilizes data from Scotland’s National Records (1996–2023), integrating demographic, geographic, and substance-related factors.

Data cleaning, visualization, and statistical analysis were conducted using:
- ggplot2
- dplyr
- plotly

Interactive elements were added to enhance user engagement with the data.


Results and Analysis

This section explores Scotland’s drug misuse crisis through:
1. Statistical trends
2. Substance group analysis
3. Key disparities

Setting Up Environment

Load Libraries

# Load libraries
library(readxl)
library(dplyr)
library(ggplot2)
library(janitor)
library(here)
library(tidyr)
library(openxlsx)
library(sf)
library(plotly)
library(leaflet)
library(htmltools)  # Load the htmltools package
library(RColorBrewer)

Set Up File Path

file_path <- "C:/Users/alexa/OneDrive/Documents/year 4/forensics/essay/drug-related-deaths-scotland/drug-related-deaths-23-data.xlsx"

Causes of Drug Misuse Deaths

Accidental poisoning emerged as the leading cause of death post-2011 (Figure 3), driven by the rising prevalence of synthetic opioids, which are 50–100 times more potent than morphine (Thompson et al., 2021).

These substances, often combined with benzodiazepines, are implicated in over 60% of drug-related deaths, highlighting the dangers of poly-drug use (McAuley et al., 2022).

Key takeaway: This increase reflects not only shifts in drug supply but also systemic shortcomings in prevention and intervention strategies.


Figure 4: Drug Misuse Deaths Over Time by Cause (Pre- and Post-2011)

The navy dashed line indicates the 2011 policy change impacting reporting practices.
- Accidental poisoning became the leading cause of death post-2011, while deaths attributed to mental disorders decreased significantly.
- Other categories, including self-poisoning, undetermined deaths, and assault, exhibit less consistent trends, highlighting the multifaceted nature of drug-related mortality in Scotland.

# Create the faceted ggplot with different scales for each cause of death
faceted_plot <- ggplot(table_2_long, aes(x = year, y = deaths, color = cause_of_death, group = cause_of_death)) +
  # Add lines and points for causes of death
  geom_line(size = 1) +
  geom_point(size = 2) +
  # Add the policy line
  geom_vline(xintercept = 2011, linetype = "dashed", color = "navy", size = 0.8) +
  labs(
    title = "Drug Misuse Deaths Over Time by Cause (Pre- and Post-2011)",
    x = "Year",
    y = "Number of Deaths",
    color = "Cause of Death"
  ) +
  facet_wrap(~ cause_of_death, scales = "free_y") +  # Separate panels with free y-axis scales
  theme_minimal() +
  theme(
    strip.text = element_text(size = 12, face = "bold"),  # Facet titles
    legend.position = "none",  # Remove the legend
    plot.title = element_text(size = 16, face = "bold"),
    axis.title = element_text(size = 12),
    axis.text = element_text(size = 10)
  ) +
  aes(text = paste(
    "Year:", year,
    "<br>Deaths:", deaths,
    "<br>Cause of Death:", cause_of_death
  ))  # Add custom hover text

# Convert to interactive plotly object
interactive_faceted_plot <- ggplotly(faceted_plot, tooltip = "text") %>%
  layout(
    title = list(text = "Drug Misuse Deaths Over Time by Cause (Pre- and Post-2011)"),
    hoverlabel = list(font = list(size = 12))  # Adjust hover text size
  )

# View the interactive plot
interactive_faceted_plot

Self-poisoning and deaths of undetermined intent, also visualised in Figure 4, highlight the intersection between drug misuse and mental health crises. Scotland’s failure to integrate mental health and addiction services exacerbates these risks, leaving vulnerable individuals without adequate support.

Furthermore, there appears to be a growing role of poly-drug use, which complicates prevention efforts.
- Polydrug use contributes to over 70% of deaths (Figure 5), significantly increasing the risk of fatal interactions.
- This dominance of poly-drug use reveals shortcomings in current treatment models, which often address single-substance dependency rather than the interplay of multiple drugs (Ives and Ghelani, 2006).


Figure 5: Single-Drug vs. Poly-Drug Deaths in 2023

  • Poly-drug deaths accounted for 73.7% (864) of total drug-related deaths, highlighting the complexity and heightened risks associated with substance interactions.
  • Single-drug deaths represented 26.3% (308) of the total, underscoring the need for interventions targeting poly-drug use specifically.
# Load and clean necessary data for both single-drug and poly-drug deaths in 2023
table_8 <- read.xlsx(file_path, sheet = "Table_8", startRow = 5) %>%
  clean_names()

table_3 <- read.xlsx(file_path, sheet = "Table_3", startRow = 6) %>%
  clean_names()

# Filter for 2023 data
single_drug_2023 <- table_8 %>%
  filter(!grepl("all drug misuse deaths", tolower(drugs_implicated), fixed = TRUE)) %>%  # Exclude total row
  summarize(single_drug_deaths = sum(persons, na.rm = TRUE)) %>%
  pull(single_drug_deaths)

total_deaths_2023 <- table_3 %>%
  filter(year == 2023) %>%
  pull(all_drug_misuse_deaths)

# Calculate poly-drug deaths and create a summary data frame
poly_drug_2023 <- total_deaths_2023 - single_drug_2023

drug_summary_2023 <- data.frame(
  type = c("Single-Drug Deaths", "Poly-Drug Deaths"),
  deaths = c(single_drug_2023, poly_drug_2023)
) %>%
  mutate(percentage = round(deaths / sum(deaths) * 100, 1))

# Plot the summary data
poly_vs_single_plot <- ggplot(drug_summary_2023, aes(x = deaths, y = type, fill = type)) +
  geom_bar(stat = "identity") +
  geom_text(aes(
    label = paste0(type, "\nDeaths: ", deaths, "\nPercentage: ", percentage, "%"),
    x = deaths / 2  # Position text at the middle of each bar
  ),
  color = "white",    # Text color for contrast
  size = 5,           # Font size for text
  hjust = 0.5         # Center horizontally within the bar
  ) +
  labs(
    title = "Single-Drug vs Poly-Drug Deaths (2023)",
    x = "Number of Deaths",
    y = NULL,          # Remove Y-axis label
    fill = NULL        # Remove legend title
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  theme(
    axis.text.y = element_blank(),        # Remove Y-axis text
    axis.ticks.y = element_blank(),       # Remove Y-axis ticks
    legend.position = "none",             # Remove legend
    plot.title = element_text(size = 16, face = "bold", hjust = 0.5),  # Centered title
    axis.title.x = element_text(size = 12)  # X-axis label size
  ) +
  scale_fill_brewer(palette = "Set2")  # Use Set2 color palette

poly_vs_single_plot

Addressing these causes requires interventions that extend beyond harm reduction.

  • The widespread use of methadone for opioid dependency, dispensed by 79.1% of pharmacies in 2006, demonstrates a commitment to harm reduction.
  • However, the lack of progress in needle exchange services remains a significant gap in addressing drug misuse effectively.

Socioeconomic Disparities

Socioeconomic deprivation is a key driver of drug misuse deaths in Scotland:

  • Individuals in the most deprived quintile (SIMD 1) experience death rates up to eight times higher than those in the least deprived quintile (SIMD 5).
  • Factors such as the affordability and accessibility of ‘street benzos’ in deprived areas exacerbate this crisis (McAuley et al., 2022).

Addressing these disparities requires structural reforms to ensure:
1. Equitable funding for harm reduction services.
2. Improved access to essential interventions in the most deprived areas.


Figure 6: Drug Misuse Deaths Over Time by SIMD Quintile (2000–2023)

  • Age-standardized rates highlight stark disparities:
    • Individuals in the most deprived quintile (SIMD 1) consistently experience the highest rates of drug misuse deaths.
    • In contrast, the least deprived quintile (SIMD 5) shows significantly lower rates, underscoring the impact of socioeconomic inequalities.
# Load and clean Table 9 (Quintiles)
table_9 <- read.xlsx(file_path, sheet = "Table_9", startRow = 5) %>%
  clean_names()

quintile_data <- table_9 %>%
  select(year, starts_with("simd_quintile")) %>%
  pivot_longer(cols = -year, names_to = "quintile", values_to = "age_standardized_rate") %>%
  mutate(quintile = gsub("simd_quintile_", "", quintile))

quintile_data_clean <- quintile_data %>%
  filter(grepl("age_standardised_rate", quintile)) %>%
  mutate(
    quintile_number = case_when(
      grepl("1_most_deprived", quintile) ~ "1 (Most Deprived)",
      grepl("5_least_deprived", quintile) ~ "5 (Least Deprived)",
      TRUE ~ gsub("_age_standardised_rate", "", quintile)
    )
  ) %>%
  select(year, quintile_number, age_standardized_rate)

quintile_data_clean %>% filter(is.na(age_standardized_rate))

#Create Quintile Line plot  
quintile_plot <- ggplot(quintile_data_clean, aes(x = year, y = age_standardized_rate, color = quintile_number, group = quintile_number)) +
  geom_line(size = 1.2) +
  geom_point(size = 1.5, alpha = 0.8) +
  labs(
    title = "Drug Misuse Deaths Over Time by SIMD Quintile",
    subtitle = "Highlighting disparities in age-standardized rates (2000–2023).",
    x = "Year",
    y = "Age-Standardized Rate (per 100,000)",
    color = "Quintile"
  ) +
  theme_minimal() +
  theme(
    legend.position = "right",
    legend.title = element_text(size = 10),
    legend.text = element_text(size = 9)
  ) +
  scale_color_brewer(palette = "Set2") + # Vibrant color palette
  aes(text = paste("Year:", year, "<br>Age-Standardized Rate:", round(age_standardized_rate, 2), "<br>Quintile:", quintile_number))  # Custom hover text

# Convert to interactive plot
quintile_interactive_plot <- ggplotly(quintile_plot, tooltip = "text")
# View Quintile Interactive Plot
quintile_interactive_plot

Key Takeaway:
Addressing the stark socioeconomic disparities requires prioritizing harm reduction services in the most deprived communities. Policies should specifically target barriers to access, including:
- Affordability of services.
- Stigma associated with drug misuse.
- Equitable distribution of harm reduction services.


The funding formula used by NHS Scotland Boards and Alcohol and Drug Partnerships (ADPs) has disproportionately impacted deprived communities, leading to:
- Increased Drug-Related Death (DRD) rates (McPhee and Sheridan, 2020).
- Limited participation of pharmacies in needle exchange programs due to:
- Safety concerns.
- Perceived impact on customer relationships.

Despite modest improvements, only 12.5% of Scottish pharmacies provided needle exchange services as of 2006, reflecting the persistent challenges in achieving equitable service distribution (Matheson, Bond, and Tinelli, 2007).


Figure 7: Drug Misuse Deaths Over Time by SIMD Decile (2000–2023)

  • Age-standardized rates reveal stark inequalities:
    • The most deprived decile (1) consistently experiences the highest rates of drug misuse deaths, peaking in 2020.
    • In contrast, the least deprived decile (10) shows consistently low rates throughout the period.
    • These trends highlight the socioeconomic gradient in drug misuse mortality and the urgent need for targeted interventions.
# Load and clean Table 10 (Deciles) just once
table_10 <- read.xlsx(file_path, sheet = "Table_10", startRow = 6) %>%
  clean_names()

# Process the decile data in a single step
decile_data <- table_10 %>%
  select(year, starts_with("simd_decile")) %>%
  mutate(across(starts_with("simd_decile"), ~ as.numeric(gsub("[^0-9.]", "", .)))) %>%
  pivot_longer(cols = -year, names_to = "decile", values_to = "age_standardized_rate") %>%
  mutate(decile = gsub("simd_decile_", "", decile))

# Clean and filter the decile data
decile_data_clean <- decile_data %>%
  separate(decile, into = c("decile_number", "metric"), sep = "_(?=[^_]+$)", extra = "merge", fill = "right") %>%
  filter(metric == "rate") %>%
  mutate(
    decile_number = gsub("_most_deprived", "", decile_number),
    decile_number = gsub("_age_standardised", "", decile_number),
    decile_number = gsub("_least_deprived", "", decile_number),
    decile_number = as.factor(decile_number),
    decile_label = case_when(
      decile_number == "1" ~ "1 (Most Deprived)",
      decile_number == "10" ~ "10 (Least Deprived)",
      TRUE ~ as.character(decile_number)
    )
  ) %>%
  filter(!is.na(age_standardized_rate))

# Manually assign colors for deciles 1 to 10 (Set2 color palette)
decile_colors <- c(RColorBrewer::brewer.pal(8, "Set2"), "#Bd82ff", "#A0c4ff")

# Create the decile plot
decile_plot <- ggplot(decile_data_clean, aes(x = year, y = age_standardized_rate, color = decile_number, group = decile_number)) +
  geom_line(data = decile_data_clean %>% filter(decile_number %in% c("1", "10")), aes(color = decile_number), size = 1.2) + 
  geom_line(data = decile_data_clean %>% filter(!decile_number %in% c("1", "10")), aes(color = decile_number), alpha = 0.7, size = 0.7) +
  geom_point(size = 1.5, alpha = 0.6) +
  labs(
    title = "Drug Misuse Deaths Over Time by SIMD Decile",
    subtitle = "Highlighting disparities in age-standardized rates (2000–2023).",
    x = "Year",
    y = "Age-Standardized Rate (per 100,000)",
    color = "SIMD Decile"
  ) +
  theme_minimal(base_size = 12) +
  theme(
    plot.title = element_text(size = 14, face = "bold"),
    plot.subtitle = element_text(size = 12, face = "italic"),
    legend.title = element_text(size = 11),
    legend.text = element_text(size = 10)
  ) +
  scale_color_manual(values = decile_colors, name = "SIMD Decile", breaks = 1:10, labels = c("1 (Most Deprived)", "2", "3", "4", "5", "6", "7", "8", "9", "10 (Least Deprived)")) +
  aes(text = paste("Year:", year, "<br>Age-Standardized Rate:", round(age_standardized_rate, 2), "<br>Decile:", decile_label))

# Convert to interactive plot
decile_interactive_plot <- ggplotly(decile_plot, tooltip = "text")

# View Decile Interactive Plot
decile_interactive_plot

Policy responses have been inadequate in addressing the structural drivers of drug misuse. Critiques of the governance of drug and alcohol services since 2009 emphasize the following issues:
- Widened inequalities due to funding decisions.
- Disproportionate risks for already vulnerable communities (McPhee and Sheridan, 2020).

Governance failures undermine efforts to tackle the systemic drivers of drug misuse and drug-related deaths (DRDs). Key challenges include:
- Concentration of needle exchange services in urban areas, limited further by:
- Stigma.
- Resource constraints (Matheson, Bond, and Tinelli, 2007) (Childs et al., 2021).

Addressing these disparities requires:
- Investments in affordable housing.
- Initiatives for job creation.
- Development of integrated, community-based health services.


Geographic Patterns

Geographic differences in drug misuse reflect Scotland’s uneven distribution of social and health resources:

  • Rural areas, which accounted for only 18.1% of surveyed pharmacies in 2006, face significant limitations in harm reduction service availability.
    • This underscores the need for targeted interventions to bridge geographic disparities in service provision (Matheson, Bond, and Tinelli, 2007).
  • Urban areas like Glasgow experience higher rates of drug deaths due to the intersection of:
    • Homelessness.
    • Poverty.
    • Social exclusion (Figure 8).
  • In contrast, rural areas report lower rates but encounter challenges like:
    • Geographic isolation.
    • Limited harm reduction services (Bailey, Bramley, and Gannon, 2016).

Figure 8: Total Drug Misuse Deaths by Health Board Area in Scotland (2010–2023)

  • The map illustrates geographic disparities in drug misuse deaths:
    • Urban areas, particularly Greater Glasgow and Clyde, exhibit the highest concentration of deaths, shown in dark blue.
    • Rural and less densely populated regions report significantly lower totals.
    • These trends emphasize regional inequalities in drug misuse mortality.
#import health boards 
hb_shapes <- st_read("NHS_healthboards_2019.shp") %>% 
  clean_names()

#join hb shape data with hb deaths 
table_HB1 <- read.xlsx(file_path, sheet = "Table_HB1", startRow = 5)

persons_hb1 <- table_HB1 %>% 
  filter(Sex == "Persons") %>%
  select(-Scotland)

long_HB1 <- persons_hb1 %>% 
  pivot_longer(
    cols = c(Ayrshire.and.Arran:Western.Isles), 
    names_to = "hb_name", 
    values_to = "deaths" 
  ) 

# Recode specific health board names in the `hb_name` column
long_HB1 <- long_HB1 %>%
  mutate(hb_name = recode(hb_name,
    "Ayrshire.and.Arran" = "Ayrshire and Arran", 
    "Dumfries.and.Galloway" = "Dumfries and Galloway", 
    "Greater.Glasgow.and.Clyde" = "Greater Glasgow and Clyde", 
    "Forth.Valley" = "Forth Valley", 
    "Western.Isles" = "Western Isles"
  ))


hb_deaths <- long_HB1 %>% 
  full_join(hb_shapes, by = "hb_name")

# Ensure the data is in the correct format for plotting (sf object)
hb_deaths_sf <- st_as_sf(hb_deaths)

# Summarize total deaths by region (Health Board) and year
total_deaths_by_region <- hb_deaths_sf %>%
  group_by(hb_name) %>%
  summarize(total_deaths = sum(deaths, na.rm = TRUE))

# Ensure the data is in WGS84 for compatibility with leaflet
hb_deaths_sf <- st_transform(hb_deaths_sf, crs = 4326)

# Summarize total deaths by region (Health Board)
total_deaths_by_region <- hb_deaths_sf %>%
  group_by(hb_name) %>%
  summarize(total_deaths = sum(deaths, na.rm = TRUE), .groups = "drop")

# Create the interactive leaflet map
hb_map <- leaflet(total_deaths_by_region) %>%
  addTiles() %>%
  addPolygons(
    fillColor = ~colorNumeric("YlOrRd", total_deaths)(total_deaths),
    weight = 1,
    opacity = 1,
    color = "white",
    fillOpacity = 0.7,
    popup = ~paste(
      "<strong>Health Board:</strong>", hb_name,
      "<br><strong>Total Deaths:</strong>", total_deaths
    )
  ) %>%
  addLegend(
    pal = colorNumeric("YlOrRd", total_deaths_by_region$total_deaths),
    values = total_deaths_by_region$total_deaths,
    title = "<b>Total Deaths</b>",
    position = "bottomright"
  ) %>%
  addScaleBar(
    position = "bottomleft",
    options = scaleBarOptions(imperial = FALSE)
  ) %>%
  addControl(
    HTML("<div style='background-color: white; padding: 10px; border-radius: 5px; box-shadow: 0px 0px 5px gray;'>
            <h3 style='margin: 0;'>Interactive Map of Drug Misuse Deaths in Scotland (2010–2023)</h3>
          </div>"),
    position = "topright"
  ) %>%
  addControl(
    HTML("<div style='background-color: white; padding: 10px; border-radius: 5px; box-shadow: 0px 0px 5px gray;'>
            <p style='margin: 0;'>Note: Data reflects total drug misuse deaths reported by region from 2010 to 2023.</p>
          </div>"),
    position = "bottomleft"
  )
hb_map

Expanding harm reduction services in high-risk regions like Glasgow, such as mobile units or supervised injection sites, can help reduce the geographic disparity in drug-related deaths.

Critically, the allocation of resources has not aligned with regional needs. Due to Glasgow’s high mortality rates (Figure 8), funding for harm reduction services in the area has been insufficient to meet demand (Tweed et al., 2018).
- The expansion of mobile harm reduction units and supervised injection facilities could address some of these disparities.
- By doing so, Scotland would be one step closer to ensuring its vulnerable populations have access to life-saving interventions.


Poly-Drug Use vs. Single-Drug Use

  • Over 70% of drug-related deaths in 2023 were linked to poly-drug use (Figure 5).
  • Current treatment models, which focus on single-substance dependencies, are inadequate.

Key Issues and Risks

  1. Poly-drug users frequently use benzodiazepines, particularly etizolam, which is implicated in fatal overdoses.
    • Only 1% of deaths involved etizolam alone (McAuley et al., 2022).
  2. The combination of substances, especially benzodiazepines and opioids, dramatically increases the risk of fatal overdose (Boon et al., 2020).

Interventions Needed

  • Expand detoxification and rehabilitation programs that address interactions between multiple substances.
  • Improve education on the risks of poly-drug use.
    • Distribute naloxone alongside targeted public health campaigns to warn of the risks associated with combining substances.

Policy Implications and Recommendations

Expanding Harm Reduction Services

  • Invest in supervised injection sites, mobile harm reduction units, and needle exchange programs.

Addressing Systemic Inequities

  • Implement equitable funding for deprived regions.
  • Integrate mental health and addiction services.

Targeted Public Health Campaigns

  • Promote education on the risks of poly-drug use.
  • Expand naloxone distribution programs and training initiatives.

Conclusion

Scotland’s drug misuse deaths result from a complex interplay of socioeconomic, behavioural, and policy failures. Over the past three decades, systemic shortcomings have fuelled one of Europe’s highest drug-related death rates.

Key Challenges

  1. Persistent poverty and untreated mental health crises.
  2. Inadequate harm reduction services.
  3. Governance failures and inequitable funding practices (McPhee and Sheridan, 2020).

Recommendations

  • Sustained investment in harm reduction strategies.
  • Structural reforms to ensure equitable access to services.
  • Integration of mental health and addiction care.

The success of the National Naloxone Programme demonstrates the potential of targeted, well-funded interventions to reduce high-risk mortality (Bird et al., 2016).
- However, such efforts must be scaled and complemented by broader public health initiatives that prioritise prevention, equity, and long-term community resilience.

By adopting a proactive, equity-focused approach, Scotland can pave the way for lasting systemic change, ultimately saving lives and improving community resilience.


Sources and References

Data Source

References

  1. Bailey, N., Bramley, G. and Gannon, M., 2016. Poverty and social exclusion in urban and rural areas of Scotland
  2. Bird, S.M., McAuley, A., Perry, S. and Hunter, C., 2016. Effectiveness of Scotland’s National Naloxone Programme for reducing opioid‐related deaths: a before (2006–10) versus after (2011–13) comparison. Addiction, 111(5), pp.883-891.
  3. Boon, M., van Dorp, E., Broens, S. and Overdyk, F., 2020. Combining opioids and benzodiazepines: effects on mortality and severe adverse respiratory events. Annals of Palliative Medicine, 9(2), pp.54257-54557.
  4. Childs, E., Biello, K.B., Valente, P.K., Salhaney, P., Biancarelli, D.L., Olson, J., Earlywine, J.J., Marshall, B.D. and Bazzi, A.R., 2021. Implementing harm reduction in non-urban communities affected by opioids and polysubstance use: a qualitative study exploring challenges and mitigating strategies. International Journal of Drug Policy, 90, p.103080.
  5. Gjersing, L. and Helle, M.K., 2021. Injecting alone is more common among men, frequent injectors and polysubstance users in a sample of people who inject drugs. Substance Use & Misuse, 56(14), pp.2214-2220.
  6. Gossop, M., Griffiths, P. and Strang, J., 1994. Sex differences in patterns of drug taking behaviour: A study at a London community drug team. The British Journal of Psychiatry, 164(1), pp.101-104.
  7. Ives, R. and Ghelani, P., 2006. Polydrug use (the use of drugs in combination): A brief review. Drugs: education, prevention and policy, 13(3), pp.225-232.
  8. Matheson, C., Bond, C.M. and Tinelli, M., 2007. Community pharmacy harm reduction services for drug misusers: national service delivery and professional attitude development over a decade in Scotland. Journal of public health, 29(4), pp.350-357.
  9. Matheson, C., Pflanz-Sinclair, C., Aucott, L., Wilson, P., Watson, R., Malloy, S., Dickie, E. and McAuley, A., 2014. Reducing drug related deaths: a pre-implementation assessment of knowledge, barriers and enablers for naloxone distribution through general practice. BMC family practice, 15, pp.1-10.
  10. McAuley, A., Matheson, C. and Robertson, J.R., 2022. From the clinic to the street: the changing role of benzodiazepines in the Scottish overdose epidemic. International Journal of Drug Policy, 100, p.103512.
  11. McPhee, I. and Sheridan, B., 2020. AUDIT Scotland 10 years on: Explaining how funding decisions link to increased risk for drug related deaths among the poor. Drugs and Alcohol Today, 20(4), pp.313-322.
  12. O’sullivan, R., Burns, A., Leavey, G., Leroi, I., Burholt, V., Lubben, J., Holt-Lunstad, J., Victor, C., Lawlor, B., Vilar-Compte, M. and Perissinotto, C.M., 2021. Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on loneliness and social isolation: A multi-country study. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(19), p.9982.
  13. Thompson, R.A., Sanderson, W.T., Westneat, S., Bunn, T., Lavender, A., Tran, A., Holsinger, C., Flammia, D., Zhang, L. and He, Y., 2021. Perceptions of opioid and other illicit drug exposure reported among first responders in the southeast, 2017 to 2018. Health Science Reports, 4(3), p.e335.
  14. Tweed, E.J., Miller, R.G., Schofield, J., Barnsdale, L. and Matheson, C., 2022. Why are drug-related deaths among women increasing in Scotland? A mixed-methods analysis of possible explanations. Drugs: Education, Prevention and Policy, 29(1), pp.62-75.
  15. Tweed, E.J., Rodgers, M., Priyadarshi, S. and Crighton, E., 2018. “Taking away the chaos”: a health needs assessment for people who inject drugs in public places in Glasgow, Scotland. BMC public health, 18, pp.1-9.